Cognitive Distortions: 12 Types, Examples and How to Challenge Negative Thinking

I see the world for what it is for me, not for what it actually is Abstract

Cognitive distortions are habitual patterns of thinking that can lead people to interpret situations inaccurately, focus disproportionately on negative information, or draw conclusions without sufficient evidence. They can influence emotions, behaviour and decision-making. Recognising these patterns and learning to challenge them through techniques such as thought records, perspective-taking and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can help people develop more balanced ways of thinking.

The way we think has significant implications for us as individuals, our behaviour, and the consequences of our actions on the people and environment around us. Our minds can sometimes distort our interpretation of reality, influencing how we feel and respond to everyday situations. These negative or unhelpful thought patterns are called cognitive distortions. They are often automatic and can occur in anyone, but they may become problematic when they develop into persistent patterns that affect emotional well-being and behaviour.

The phrase “the way you feel is the way you think” captures the relationship between thoughts and emotions. Cognitive distortions can contribute to negative feelings, reduce motivation and self-esteem, and play a role in difficulties associated with anxiety and depression. Psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck developed the cognitive model of depression, identifying systematic biases in the way people interpret experiences. David D. Burns later popularised cognitive distortions through his book Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy (1980). In this article, we explore 12 common types of cognitive distortions, their everyday examples, and practical strategies for recognising and challenging unhelpful thinking patterns.

What Are Cognitive Distortions in Psychology?

“The way we see the world is not necessarily a reflection of the world as it is, but is influenced by who we are, our beliefs, experiences, attitudes and the environment in which we live.”

Each of us develops a different perspective on the world. For some, life may seem monotonous; for others, it may feel exciting and full of possibilities. Our experiences, education, relationships and surroundings influence the mental filters through which we interpret events. As these influences change, our worldview can change as well. Our brains constantly interpret information and assign meaning to what happens around us. However, our interpretations are not always accurate. We may rely on assumptions, overlook relevant information or draw conclusions before considering the available evidence.

These thinking patterns can influence our emotions, behaviour and decisions. When they become habitual, they may act like filters that shape how we perceive ourselves, other people and the world.

Who Developed the Concept of Cognitive Distortions?

Aaron T. Beck developed the cognitive theory of depression during the 1960s. He observed that people experiencing depression often displayed systematic errors in thinking, particularly negative interpretations of themselves, their experiences and their future. These patterns could maintain negative beliefs even when contradictory evidence was available. Such thinking could contribute to feelings of inadequacy, hopelessness and low self-worth.

David D. Burns further popularised the concept in his 1980 book, Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy. He described common patterns of distorted thinking and explained how identifying them could help people respond to situations more constructively. Cognitive distortions are not exclusive to people experiencing depression. Everyone can occasionally interpret situations in biased or unhelpful ways. The concern arises when these patterns become persistent and interfere with everyday life.

What Are the 12 Types of Cognitive Distortions?

Cognitive distortions can take several forms, from assuming that we know what other people think to predicting the worst possible outcome or blaming ourselves for events beyond our control.

The following table summarises the 12 types discussed in this article.

Cognitive Distortion	What It Means	Everyday Example
Mind Reading	Assuming you know what another person is thinking	Believing a colleague dislikes you because they did not say hello
Negative Focus	Focusing on negative details while overlooking positive information	Dwelling on two university rejections despite receiving three offers
Overgeneralisation	Drawing a broad conclusion from one or a few experiences	Believing you are a failure after one poor exam
Catastrophising	Assuming the worst possible outcome will happen.	Believing a minor problem will lead to disaster
Labelling	Defining yourself or another person by a single action	Calling yourself a loser after losing a match
Should-Thinking	Applying rigid expectations to yourself or others	Believing you must perform perfectly at everything
Emotional Reasoning	Treating feelings as proof that something is true	Thinking that feeling anxious means danger is certain
Fortune-Telling	Predicting a negative future without sufficient evidence	Assuming you will fail an exam before taking it
Personalisation	Taking excessive responsibility for events outside your control	Blaming yourself for your parents’ divorce
Owning the Truth	Insisting that your opinions are unquestionably correct	Continuing an argument despite recognising that you are hurting someone
Just-World Thinking	Assuming that outcomes should always be fair or deserved	Believing a promotion must go to the person who has worked longest
Control Fallacy	Overestimating or underestimating your control over events	Blaming yourself for another person’s choices

These categories are useful for recognising patterns, but they are not a diagnostic checklist. The same situation can involve more than one thinking pattern.

1. What Is Mind Reading?

Mind reading is the assumption that you know what another person is thinking without having sufficient evidence. It can feel as though you have the ability to read people’s minds and predict their next actions. In reality, this pattern can cause people to jump to conclusions, often interpreting ambiguous behaviour negatively.

Example: Aruna and her colleague.

Aruna is on her way to the office when she sees a colleague and says hello. Her colleague walks past without responding. Aruna immediately thinks, “She doesn’t like me” or “She hates me.” Aruna is assuming that she knows what her colleague is thinking without considering other explanations. Perhaps the colleague was distracted, preoccupied or did not hear her. By treating her interpretation as fact, Aruna may experience unnecessary anxiety and become distant from her colleague.

2.What Is Negative Focus or Mental Filtering?

Negative focus occurs when a person concentrates on negative information while overlooking positive or neutral details. In cognitive therapy, a related pattern is known as mental filtering or selective abstraction.

David Burns described how people experiencing depression may focus on negative aspects of an experience while disregarding positive evidence that challenges their conclusions (Burns, 1980).

For example, when someone compliments your appearance or work, you might think, “They’re just being kind; they don’t really mean it.” Instead of acknowledging the compliment, you dismiss it and focus on the possibility that it was insincere.

Example: University applications

Suppose you apply to five universities abroad and receive three offers but are rejected by two. Instead of appreciating the three offers, you focus entirely on the rejections and think, “I’m not good enough” or “I got accepted only because of luck.” You have filtered out positive information and allowed the negative outcomes to dominate your interpretation of the situation.

Over time, this pattern can make it difficult to recognise achievements and appreciate progress. Burks (2020) discusses how a person’s tendency to focus on flaws rather than strengths can influence their interpretation of everyday experiences.

3. What Is Overgeneralization?

Overgeneralisation occurs when a person draws a broad conclusion from one or a few isolated incidents and applies it to other situations without sufficient evidence. Beck (1963) described this pattern as extending a conclusion beyond the circumstances that originally supported it.

Example: Nobita from Doraemon Nobita fails a mathematics exam and concludes that he can never do anything right. He begins telling himself, “I am a failure,” “I can never get up on time,” and “I can never be good at anything.” Rather than viewing the exam as one disappointing experience, Nobita generalises the failure to every area of his life. As a result, he may feel helpless, become anxious about future challenges and rely on Doraemon for help rather than developing confidence in his own abilities. One poor result does not establish that a person will fail at everything. Recognising the difference between a specific setback and a general judgement can help challenge overgeneralisation.

4.What Is Catastrophising?

Catastrophising is a cognitive distortion in which a person anticipates the worst possible outcome and treats it as especially likely or unbearable. It often involves repeated “what if” questions.

For example:

“What if I go outside and a car hits me?”

“What if I become infected with a virus?”

“What if my boss calls me into the office because something terrible has happened?”

Ambiguity can make catastrophising more likely because the person does not know what to expect. A message from a boss saying, “Come to my office now,” may lead someone to imagine the worst before discovering the actual reason. People who have experienced repeated adverse events, chronic pain or trauma may become particularly alert to potential threats. This does not mean that every concern is irrational; the distortion lies in treating the worst-case scenario as inevitable or failing to consider other plausible outcomes.

5.What Is Labelling?

Labelling occurs when a person defines themselves or someone else using a broad, fixed judgement based on a particular behaviour or experience. David Burns described labelling as an extreme form of overgeneralisation. People are complex, and reducing an entire identity to one action or characteristic can create an inaccurate picture of who they are (Burns, 1980).

Example: Judging a classmate

A classmate fails to submit a report on time, and you immediately label them “useless.” This judgement ignores other possible explanations, such as an unexpected difficulty, illness or misunderstanding. Instead of evaluating the specific behaviour, you make a global judgement about the person.

Example: Adam and tennis

Adam has recently started playing tennis and loses a match. He labels himself a “born loser.” Adam is defining his ability and identity by a single outcome, even though he is still learning the sport. Labelling can become particularly damaging when people apply harsh labels to themselves. Replacing “I am a failure” with “I did not perform well in this situation” allows room for learning, improvement and change.

6. What Is Should-Thinking?

Should-thinking involves rigid expectations about how we or other people ought to behave. These expectations often use words such as “should,” “must,” “ought to” and “have to,” leaving little room for individual differences or circumstances.

Albert Ellis used the term musterbation to describe rigid demands and absolutistic expectations. Burns described a similar pattern through the concept of “should statements” (Burns, 1980).

Example: Emma’s perfectionism

Emma believes she should perform perfectly in every academic and sporting activity. Whenever she makes a mistake or performs below her expectations, she feels guilty and disappointed. Her rigid expectations make it difficult for her to accept that mistakes are a normal part of learning.

Should-thinking can also create frustration when directed at others.

For example, your boss arrives late to an important meeting because he overslept and his phone battery died. You immediately think that he is careless and should have found another way to contact the team.

Although punctuality may be important, a rigid judgement can prevent you from considering the circumstances. Unrealistic expectations can create unnecessary guilt, resentment and frustration. Flexible standards can help people maintain their values without expecting perfection from themselves or others.

7. What Is Emotional Reasoning?

Emotional reasoning occurs when a person treats their feelings as evidence that a particular belief or interpretation must be true. As Schrader (2017) discusses in relation to cognitive distortions, a person may give greater weight to an assumed emotional truth than to the available evidence.

For example, someone might think:

“I feel anxious, so something dangerous must happen.”

“I feel guilty, so I must have done something wrong.”

“I don’t feel motivated, so I cannot complete this task.”

Superstitions can sometimes involve similar reasoning. A person might interpret a black cat crossing their path before an interview as evidence that they will not get the job. Emotional reasoning can also contribute to avoidance. Someone who feels overwhelmed by cleaning their room may conclude that the task is impossible, even though they might be able to complete it gradually. Feelings are important and deserve attention, but they do not always provide an accurate account of external reality. Recognising the difference between an emotion and the conclusion drawn from it can help people make more balanced decisions.

8. What Is Fortune-Telling?

Fortune-telling occurs when a person predicts that future events will turn out negatively and treats that prediction as though it were already certain.

For example, someone experiencing anxiety might tell themselves, “I’m not going to pass this exam,” or “I’m going to lose control.”

These predictions may be based on fear rather than a realistic assessment of the available evidence. A person might also say, “I just know they’ll be out of ice cream when we get to Baskin Robbins.”

Although this example is relatively harmless, the same thinking pattern can become distressing when applied to important events such as exams, relationships or employment. Cuzzone (2020) noted that anticipating the worst may sometimes feel protective because a person believes they will be less disappointed if things go wrong. However, treating a negative prediction as a certainty can increase anxiety and discourage constructive action.

The future is uncertain. Considering different possible outcomes is generally more useful than assuming that one negative outcome is inevitable.

9. What Is Personalisation?

Personalisation occurs when a person assumes excessive responsibility for an event or outcome without sufficient evidence that they caused it. Whalley (2019) discusses the tendency to relate external events to oneself even when there is no clear basis for doing so. Burns described personalisation as a source of inappropriate guilt.

Example: Esha and her parents’ divorce

Esha blames herself for her parents’ divorce. She thinks, “If I had got better grades” or “If I had behaved differently, my parents would not have divorced.” However, a relationship between two adults involves many factors, and Esha may have had little or no control over their decision.

Personalisation can also occur when someone sees members of a group interacting without them and immediately concludes, “I’m a bad person,” “They hate me,” or “They don’t want to be my friends anymore.” Another example involves a teacher who blames herself when a student behaves rudely towards his parents. Instead of considering the student’s individual circumstances and choices, she assumes that she must be a bad teacher.

Personalisation involves confusing influence with control. While our behaviour can affect other people, we are not responsible for every action, feeling or decision they make.

10. What Is Owning the Truth or Always Being Right?

Owning the truth, sometimes described as always being right, involves treating one’s own opinions as unquestionably correct and feeling compelled to prove them. A person experiencing this pattern may dismiss other perspectives, even when the discussion becomes hurtful or unproductive.

Example: Ayesha and her friend

Ayesha argues with her friend because she feels unsupported. She becomes convinced that her interpretation is the only correct one. Even when she realises that her words are hurting her friend, she continues arguing because she wants to prove her point.

The difficulty is not simply having a strong opinion. It is treating that opinion as an unquestionable fact and refusing to consider alternative interpretations. Recognising that we may be mistaken does not weaken our perspective. It allows us to evaluate evidence, understand others and engage in more constructive conversations

11. What Is Just-World Thinking?

Just-world thinking, also known as the fallacy of fairness in some cognitive-distortion frameworks, involves assuming that outcomes should always be fair or that people generally receive what they deserve. Research on belief in a just world has explored how people use the idea of fairness to understand events and maintain a sense that the world is predictable (Lerner, 1980; Dalbert, 2009; Hafer & Sutton, 2016).

Example: Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gam

Amitabh Bachchan’s character in Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham objects to his son marrying a woman from a different social background. He responds by ending the relationship with his son and asking him to leave. His rigid beliefs about social class and marriage prevent him from accepting a relationship that does not fit his expectations. His actions contribute to prolonged unhappiness and estrangement.

Example: Rahul and the promotion

Rahul feels frustrated when his junior receives a promotion. He thinks, ind i However, the junior may have demonstrated stronger skills, confidence or performance. Rahul’s belief that promotion should automatically follow seniority may not reflect the actual criteria.

Life does not always produce outcomes that match our expectations of fairness. Recognising this can help people respond to disappointment without assuming that every unfavourable result represents a personal injustice.

12.What Is the Control Fallacy?

The control fallacy involves inaccurate beliefs about how much control a person has over events and outcomes. It is often described in two forms: external control and excessive personal control.

External control

A person believes that external circumstances are entirely responsible for their behaviour or outcomes, overlooking the choices available to them. For example, someone might say, “I did badly on my exam because my girlfriend took me shopping the day before.”

Although the outing may have affected their preparation, the person may still have had the option to decline or set aside study time.

Excessive personal control

The opposite pattern occurs when someone believes that their actions or presence determine outcomes that are not entirely within their control. For example, a mother may blame herself because her child is not performing well in sports. She assumes that the outcome is her responsibility simply because she is the child’s parent.

However, the child may prefer reading to playing football. The mother cannot force the child to enjoy a particular sport, although she can encourage physical activity and support the child’s interests.

The control fallacy can create unnecessary guilt, resentment and frustration. A more balanced approach involves identifying what we can influence, accepting what we cannot control and taking responsibility for our own choices without assuming responsibility for everything around us.

How Can You Challenge Cognitive Distortions?

Recognising cognitive distortions is an important first step towards developing more balanced thinking patterns. Aaron Beck, David Burns and other researchers have contributed to approaches that help people identify and challenge unhelpful thoughts.

The following techniques can help people examine their assumptions and respond to situations more constructively.

1.How Can an Automatic Thought Record Help?

Negative thoughts and feelings are often associated with cognitive distortions that we may not immediately recognise. Writing down these thoughts can help us understand how we interpret situations and why particular emotions arise.

An automatic thought record typically involves noting:

• The situation that triggered the thought.

• The automatic thought or interpretation.

• The emotion experienced and its intensity.

• The evidence supporting the thought.

• Evidence that may contradict it.

• A more balanced alternative interpretation.

For example, if a colleague does not respond to your greeting, you might initially think, “She dislikes me.” Recording the thought allows you to consider alternative explanations, such as the possibility that she did not hear you or was distracted.

Practising this regularly can help you identify patterns such as mind reading, overgeneralisation and negative focus.

2. How Can Changing Roles Help Challenge Cognitive Distortions?

Changing roles involves considering a situation from another person’s perspective. This can reveal assumptions that may otherwise go unquestioned.

For instance, Esha, who blames herself for her parents’ divorce, might consider the circumstances from her parents’ perspective. She may recognise that their relationship involved difficulties that were not caused by her. This change in perspective could help her distinguish between her own actions and decisions made by other people.

Perspective-taking does not mean assuming that we know exactly what someone else is thinking. Instead, it involves considering alternative explanations and recognising that our interpretation may not be the only possible one.

3. What Is Decatastrophising?

Decatastrophising is a technique used to examine exaggerated fears and consider a wider range of possible outcomes.

When a person imagines the worst-case scenario, they may become anxious and treat that outcome as inevitable. Decatastrophising helps them evaluate the situation more realistically.

A practical approach includes the following steps:

1. Write down the situation that is causing concern.

2. Identify the worst possible outcome you are imagining.

3. List other plausible outcomes, including neutral and positive possibilities.

4. Consider whether the feared outcome is likely, rather than merely possible.

5. Reflect on how you might cope if the situation did become difficult.

6. Return your attention to the present and identify any useful action you can take now.

For example, someone who fears failing an exam can consider their preparation, past performance, available support and options if the result is disappointing. This process does not guarantee that everything will go well. Instead, it helps separate realistic concerns from exaggerated predictions and can make a situation feel more manageable.

4. How Can Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Help With Cognitive Distortions?

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a psychological treatment that examines the relationships between thoughts, emotions and behaviour. Beck’s cognitive model suggests that habitual patterns of interpretation can contribute to emotional difficulties. CBT helps people identify these patterns, evaluate the evidence behind their thoughts and develop more balanced responses.

Unlike approaches that focus exclusively on the past, CBT often concentrates on current difficulties while also exploring earlier experiences when they help explain present patterns. CBT may involve thought records, behavioural experiments, problem-solving and other structured exercises. The specific approach depends on the person’s circumstances and therapeutic goals.

For people whose thinking patterns cause persistent distress or interfere with daily life, working with a qualified mental health professional can provide additional support.

Conclusion: Why Is It Important to Recognise Cognitive Distortions?

Cognitive distortions are habitual patterns of thinking that can influence how we interpret ourselves, other people and the world. As Sonali Gupta (2020) discusses in her work on emotional well-being, unhelpful interpretations can contribute to feelings of anxiety, helplessness and reduced self-confidence.

This article has explored 12 cognitive distortions: mind reading, negative focus, overgeneralisation, catastrophising, labelling, should-thinking, emotional reasoning, fortune-telling, personalisation, owning the truth, just-world thinking and the control fallacy. These patterns can cause us to overlook positive information, make assumptions without sufficient evidence, judge ourselves harshly or take responsibility for events outside our control.

Recognising a cognitive distortion does not mean that every negative thought is wrong or that difficult emotions should be ignored. Instead, it encourages us to examine our interpretations, consider alternative explanations and distinguish between what we know and what we assume. Techniques such as automatic thought records, perspective-taking, decatastrophising and cognitive behavioural therapy can help people develop more balanced ways of thinking.

As Dan Millman writes, “You don’t have to control your thoughts, you just have to stop letting them control you.”

The aim is not to eliminate every negative thought. It is to recognise unhelpful patterns, evaluate them thoughtfully and make room for interpretations that are more accurate, flexible and constructive.

References :

Beck, A. T. (1963). Thinking and depression: I. Idiosyncratic content and cognitive distortions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 9(4), 324–333. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1963.01720160014002

Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. Guilford Press. Publisher information⁠

Burns, D. D. (1980). Feeling good: The new mood therapy. William Morrow. Bibliographic record⁠

Dalbert, C. (2009). Belief in a just world. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 288–297). Guilford Press. Publication details⁠

Furnham, A. (2003). Belief in a just world: Research progress over the past decade. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(5), 795–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00072-7⁠

Hafer, C. L., & Sutton, R. (2016). Belief in a just world. In C. Sabbagh & M. Schmitt (Eds.), Handbook of social justice theory and research (pp. 145–160). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3216-0_8⁠

Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. Plenum Press. Bibliographic record⁠

---

This article on ' Cognitive distortion ' has been contributed by Reaya Sharma, she is pursuing a bachelor's degree in psychology at Kamala Nehru College, Delhi University.

Reaya  wants to pursue master's degree in criminal psychology from overseas and learn as much as I can about this discipline.

GIRP is an initiative by (International Journal of Neurolinguistics & Gestalt Psychology) IJNGP and Umang Foundation Trust to encourage young adults across our globe to showcase their research skills in psychology and to present it in creative content expression.

Anil Thomas is an internationally certified NLP Master Practitioner and Gestalt Therapist. He has conducted NLP training in Mumbai and across six other countries, sharing his work in Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) and Gestalt Psychology through training, research and educational initiatives.